@article{3092133,
    title = "Plasma levels of six carotenoids in nine European countries: report from
the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)",
    author = "Al-Delaimy, WK and van Kappel, AL and Ferrari, P and Slimani, N and and Steghens, JP and Bingham, S and Johansson, I and Wallstrom, P and and Overvad, K and Tjonneland, A and Key, TJ and Welch, AA and and Bueno-de-Mesquita, HB and Peeters, PHM and Boeing, H and Linseisen, J and and Clavel-Chapelon, F and Guibout, C and Navarro, C and Quiros, JR and and Palli, D and Celentano, E and Trichopoulou, A and Benetou, V and Kaaks, and R and Riboli, E",
    journal = "Public Health Nutrition",
    year = "2004",
    volume = "7",
    number = "6",
    pages = "713-722",
    publisher = "C A B I PUBLISHING",
    issn = "1368-9800, 1475-2727",
    doi = "10.1079/PHN2004598",
    keywords = "carotenoids; plasma; alpha-carotene; beta-carotene; beta-cryptoxanthin;
lycopene; lutein; zeaxanthin; Europe",
    abstract = "Background: In addition to their possible direct biological effects,
plasma carotenoids can be used as biochemical markers of fruit and
vegetable consumption for identifying diet-disease associations in
epidemiological studies. Few studies have compared levels of these
carotenoids between countries in Europe. Objective: Our aim was to
assess the variability of plasma carotenoid levels within the cohort of
the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC).
Methods: Plasma levels of six carotenoids-alpha-carotene, beta-carotene,
beta-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin-were measured
cross-sectionally in 3043 study subjects from 16 regions in nine
European countries. We investigated the relative influence of gender,
season, age, body mass index (BMI), alcohol intake and smoking status on
plasma levels of the carotenoids.
Results: Mean plasma level of the sum of the six carotenoids varied
twofold between regions (1.35 mumol l(-1) for men in Malmo, Sweden vs.
2.79 mumol l(-1) for men in Ragusa/Naples, Italy; 1.61 mumol l(-1) for
women in The Netherlands vs. 3.52 mumol l(-1) in Ragusa/Naples, Italy).
Mean levels of individual carotenoids varied up to fourfold
(alpha-carotene: 0.06 mumol l(-1) for men in Murcia, Spain vs. 0.25
mumol l(-1) for vegetarian men living in the UK). In multivariate
regression analyses, region was the most important predictor of total
plasma carotenoid level (partial R-2=27.3%), followed by BMI (partial
R-2=5.2%), gender (partial R-2=2.7%) and smoking status (partial
R-2=2.8%). Females had higher total carotenoid levels than males across
Europe.
Conclusions: Plasma levels of carotenoids vary substantially between 16
different regions in Italy, Greece, Spain, France, Germany, the UK,
Sweden, Denmark and The Netherlands. Compared with region of residence,
the other demographic and lifestyle factors and laboratory measurements
have limited predictive value for plasma carotenoid levels in Europe."
}