Summary:
Abstract Introduction The perception of the self and the behavior of people, has always been an area of interest for initially philosophers and later scientific researchers. Without a doubt, the Greek Philosophers’ approach to mankind, especially in the light of the fullness of Aristotle's thought, has marked the modern, semantic approach of human temperament. The human character, according to Aristotle, is shaped both by the absence and presence of logic . With logic, man distinguishes good from evil, but logic is not enough to completely regulate human behavior. Thus, the absence of reason, is introduced as a co-modifier of human action. Freud's theory of personality is a more general model of the architecture of mental processes and structures. Freud believed that the mind, as well as the body, are energy systems using the environment as their source. Freud saw mental life from its biological dimension and defines the functions of the mind according to the general principles of physiology. He states that there is limited energy, and that if an action (behavior) encounters an obstacle, it finds the path of least resistance in order to achieve equilibrium. According to psychoanalytic theory the sources of psychic energy are the instincts. He defined also three separate mental systems, the Ego, the Hyperigo and the One, where each performs a specific psychological function.
The temperament structure of man evolves and regulates a person's relationship with his environment. Temperament refers to the degree of evaluation of ones needs and goals, as well as the degree of understanding of social demands and pressures, additionally the ability to perceive emotions, subjective and objective reality as well as the ability to take on social roles.
The diagnostic approach now used in DSM-5, represents the view that Personality Disorders are qualitatively distinct clinical syndromes. Alternative approach is that Personality Disorders are malpractice variations in personality traits, which are subtly merged into normality. Personality Disorders can also be considered dimensions, representing spectra, where the dysfunction of the personality is in a continuous with other mental disorders. In DSM Personality Disorders represents a permanent pattern of internalized experience and behaviors that deviate significantly from the anticipated cultural context of the individual and manifests itself in two or more of the following areas: cognitive, emotional, interpersonal, and impulse control. This particular pattern is rigid and present in a wide range of personal and social situations. The patterns lead the individual into dysfunctional practices, at the mental, emotional and behavioral levels.
The failure of individuals, therefore, to act in a way that is morally unethical, seems to be attributed to idiosyncratic "weaknesses." Aristotle in "About Soul" describes three flaws in relation to manners. These flaws are evil, beast and extreme. Essentially, as an extreme, it is defined that one can not do the moral good
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even though he knows it. The fact that moral knowledge in itself does not have the required enforcement force. Aristotle distinguished motives into three categories: things that deserve to be selected but susceptible to exaggeration, what should be avoided and those that are neutral but necessary for the body's life. Thus, for Aristotle, the predominant form of extreme is the simple endurance (akrasia), which ultimately differs from the one with the aspirations as far as the option is concerned. The judgment of the act is conscious, but the belief is false. Therefore it happens that one becomes incontinent carried away by an authority or opinion, which is not yet in itself contrary to the correct floor because the desire is contrary to right reason but not consulted. (Ethical Nicomacheia).
In short, its philosophical perception is associated with a lack of self-control. Akrasia can be seen as a defective feature of the character that essentially involves the development of self-control. Self- control in another aspect is indirect and regulative, both behavioral and emotional, affecting the regulation of automatic emotional reactions as a whole. It is also related to other temperament features, such as impulsivity, aggression, and hostility.
Cluster B disorders are associated with the whole range of crimes, cluster A disorders mainly with sex crime, and cross-crime, while cluster C disorders are mainly associated with sexual crime. Although recent years have shown, a further exploration of the relationship between personality traits, life-demographic events, and types of Personality Disorders, in relation to the types of offenses, shows a variety of outcomes. Especially for populations of prisoners in Greek prisons the research literature is limited in this area.
Material and Methods
This study is an attempt to record demographic and psychosocial data, delinquent history, personality traits, and evaluation the personality disorders of detainees. This is a cross-sectional study that was conducted in two Greek detention centers. In particular, in two sections (E 'and C') of Korydallos Prison and the Domokos Prison, the period from January 2012 to August 2013. The total number of those examined includes 308 male prisoners out of a total of 1300 detainees, aged between 18 and 77 years.
The aim of this research is to investigate the distribution of Personality Disorders based on the PDQ-4 Questionnaire (Personality Disorders Questionnaire) on populations of male prisoners. Furthermore, the association of the Personality Disorders with the crime history of prisoners (violent and non-violent) as well as the offense of homicide too. A further objective is to evaluate the following temperament parameters: 1. Hostility (Hostility and Direction Hostility Questionnaire, HDHQ), 2. Aggression (Aggression Questionnaire) and 3. Impulsivity (Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, BIS-11). Also the collection of family, economic, psychological and social parameters, correlated with the type of crime (violent- not violent) and the homicide offense too.Conclusions
We have seen a number of adversities in the juvenile detention. The prisoners watch and reproduce violence from an early age. Early drug use, controversial delinquency with schoolmates, school leaving, low professional and socio-economic levels, impulsive and antisocial behavior, interpersonal difficulties, and personal instability were facts on the criminal population. Moreover, they data are elements that potentially contribute to their early involvement with the criminal justice system.
In our sample, the predominance of Personality Disorders of cluster B was obvious. Overall, Personality Disorders were diagnosed in the overwhelming majority (about 9 out of 10) of the sample of prisoners. Among these, the most common Personality Disorder was Antisocial (4 out of 10). Followed by the Borderline personality disorder, Narcissistic personality disorder, Paranoid personality disorder and Schizoid personality disorder, then followed by the Obsessive Compulsive personality disorder and the Schizotypal disorder with little differences. Finally, very low percentages were found in Historionic, Depentent and Avoidance personality disorders. Whereas only a tenth of the sample population did not diagnosed with Personality Disorder.
There was a positive trend for violent offending, at a higher average age, than non-violent offending. This
fact also describe a tendency for prisoners who have committed violent crimes, to live alone or with a non-stable partner, highlighting unstable interpersonal relationships. Also a statistically significant correlation with non-violent crime, has emerged for those who have been exempted from their military obligations. In particular, prisoners discharged from their military duties were 49% less likely to have committed violent crime than those who have been fulfilled their military obligations. The use of cannabis was statistically associated with non-violent crime as well. In particular, cannabis users were less likely to have committed a violent crime than non-cannabis users or drug users (p = 0.003). Following this finding, there is also a positive correlation of drug use with non-violent crime. It turned out that drug users are 65% less likely to commit non-violent crime and 57% less likely to commit homicide (p = 0.024) than non-users.
Then, with regard to the temperament characteristics, aggression and hostility, there was no statistically significant correlation with any type of crime or homicide . On the contrary, individual characteristics of the Impulsivity Scale, in particular mobility, self-assessment and lack of design, showed a positive correlation with non-violent crime. Non-violent criminals they seem to have less self-control and increased mobility. Positive correlation with non-violent crime resulted in the mean overall impulse score (p = 0.039), where non-violent criminals are significantly more impulsive than violent criminals. Also, statistically significant correlation was also revealed for the homicide offense, where non- homicide offenders appear to be significantly more impulsive (p = 0.034), relative to the homicide offenders.
Finally, with regard to Personality Disorders, a statistically significant correlation with violent crime, arose for the Personality Disorders of cluster A (p = 0.011) overall, and in particular for Schizotypal and Schizoid personality disorder. Prisoners with cluster A disorders were 3.66 times more likely to commit violent crime than those they didn’t have Personality Disorder. While prisoners with Schizoid and Schizotypal personality disorders had 3.49 times (p = 0.043) and 10.5 times (p = 0.017) respectively, they were more likely to have committed violent crime compared to participants without Personality Disorders. Furthermore, for the offense of homicide - attempted homicide, a statistically significant correlation, emerged here also for the disorders of cluster A and in particular for Schizotypal and Schizoid personality disorder. In particular, prisoners with cluster A disorders were 4.25 times more likely to commit murder than the prisoners without Personality Disorders. Prisoners with Schizoid disorder were 5.26 times (p = 0.020) more likely to have committed homicide compared to participants without Personality Disorders. An even greater correlation has emerged for prisoners with Schizotypal personality disorder who were 8.80 times (p = 0.030) more likely to have committed homicide compared to participants without Personality Disorders. These results contradict the prevailing view in literature that, in particular, cluster B disorders and, especially in men’s population, the Antisocial personality disorder, were related to violent crimes and offences against life.
In the present study, it was attempted to emphasize that violence is the product of a chain of life events in which the risks accumulate, potentially mutually reinforce and interweave with temperament features. It is a
fact the effect of both common and non-common environments. Also should be noted that there are usually no purely criminal histories or fixed patterns of delinquency. However, it describes criminal activity that starts from an early age and involves a combination of non-violent and violent recurrent acts, with drug use and possibly psychiatric co-morbidity that leads to early imprisonment. On the other hand, there is criminal activity that does not necessarily involve repeatability, but it sometimes involves with serious offenses. In all this, it appears that the personality factor plays a key role. Finally, the "contribution" of cluster A disorders to violent crime and homicide is highlighted, which needs further investigation into both a larger sample of prison population and a population of criminals suffering from specific Personality Disorders.
