Dissertation committee:
Ανδρέας Μιχαλόπουλος, Καθηγητής, Τμήμα Φιλολογίας, ΕΚΠΑ
Σοφία Παπαϊωάννου, Καθηγήτρια, Τμήμα Φιλολογίας, ΕΚΠΑ
Μυρτώ Γκαράνη, Αναπληρώτρια Καθηγήτρια, Τμήμα Φιλολογίας, ΕΚΠΑ
Διονύσιος Μπενέτος, Καθηγητής, Τμήμα Φιλολογίας, ΕΚΠΑ
Σοφία Γεωργακοπούλου, Καθηγήτρια, Τμήμα Φιλολογίας, ΕΚΠΑ
Βάιος Βαϊόπουλος, Καθηγητής, Τμήμα Φιλολογίας, ΕΚΠΑ
Ρουμπίνη Δημοπούλου, Επίκουρη Καθηγήτρια, Τμήμα Φιλολογίας, ΕΚΠΑ
Summary:
Martial was born around 40 CE in the city of Bilbilis, in the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis and approximately at 64 CE he went to Rome, where he distinguished himself in the genre of epigram following an artistic career in the court of the emperor Domitian. The poet used in particular the Greek mythological tradition that offered him rich material in order to process various myths and adapt them appropriately to the genre of epigram and his contemporary era (end of the 1st century CE).
The main purpose of this dissertation is the analysis and presentation of the multifaceted use of mythological examples in Martial’s poetry, the emergence of intertextual relations between his work and previus poets (Catullus, Horace, Ovid, etc.), the integration of mythological references to thematic categories, the fullest possible analysis of the relevant themes, as well as the unfolding of Martial’s concept of connecting the myth ("past") to the present through the application of a mythical example into everyday life, features that make his work particularly interesting, up-to-date and original.
The first chapter examines Martial’s attempt to glorify Domitian as a ruler, as well as to showcase his political and military virtues by comparing him to the father of gods and men, Zeus. Specifically, the poet compares the emperor to the king of Olympus, in order to present him as his equal and his representative on earth through the presentation of lightning as a symbol of legitimacy and also by the comparison of Domitian’s war triumphs over barbaric tribes to Jupiter’s victory over the Giants. In the same chapter, the poet also enriches the praise of Domitian with references to Hercules, emphasizing with admiration that the impressive spectacles that take place in the Colosseum thanks to the emperor can be compared in splendor to the feats of the Greek demigod. The poet focuses on the emperor’s future apotheosis, a worthy reward from the gods for the honors he has offered them, according to Hercules’ example. Finally, Martial compares the ruler to other gods, such as Mars, Apollo, Dionysus and Minerva in order to emphasize his contribution to the rebirth of the state and the prosperity of his subjects.
In the second chapter, Domitian's praise is related to the magnificent spectacles that he generously offers to entertain the people in the arena of the Colosseum. Martial highlights an additional dimension of the spectacles, as he presents the emperor being able to connect the myth (past) with reality (present) using his "divine" powers, thus confirming his power. The poet's style in many cases is strongly critical of the convicts, as he describes with raw realism and black humor their executions in the arena. Martial further embellishes the spectacles with the cloak of myth, adding the concepts of miasma (nefas), disrespect (impietas) and crime (scelus), which belong to the core of Roman law and are under Domitian’s protection and guarantee.
In the third chapter, the praise of Domitian by Martial focuses in the field of love. A series of mythological examples is presented starting with the love relationship between Zeus and Ganymede, which the poet compares respectively to the relationship between Domitian and Earinus. The inclusion of the myth of Ganymede as an absolute exemplum of beauty in Martial's poetry is related not only to the emperor's homosexual relations with persons of his court, but also to the bisexual erotic preferences of the upper classes of Roman society, to which Martial refers sharply, as he equates homosexuality to disease and divine punishment. The same chapter also refers to the god Priapus, a symbol of erotic beauty and fertility whose main characteristic was an oversized phallus. It is clear though, that despite the projection of the solidity and the sexual impulse of Priapus, Martial does not fail to show at the same time the perishable nature of the god’s wooden statue that can not provide any kind of protection to the garden from external threats. Martial’s critique of the Roman erotic morals extends to the worship of Cybele, focusing on the custom of castration of its priests, the "Gauls" (Galli), an adjective that implies a feminine man who is possessed by unnatural sexual urges.
Despite Martial’s emphasis on carnal pleasures and love, in the fourth chapter he appears realistic concerning the futility of human nature. The poet does not omit to mention that death is present at all times, emphasizing that it is a common fate of all mortals regardless of their social status. At the same time, he emphasizes the timeless importance of certain values (glory, love and brotherly devotion) that contribute to the preservation of the dead in the collective memory, and therefore to immortality, according to the epic heroes (Dioscuri, Achilles and Patroclus). In other cases, of course, Martial parodes the motif of death, as he ironically likens the ugly appearance of some of his acquaintances to the disgusting spectacle of a corpse, while he also ridicules the futile search for the longevity associated with famous epic heroes (Nestor, Priam, Peleus). The poet's cheerful mood is intensified by references to mythological examples of animals from the epic tradition (Odysseus' dog) and previous Latin poets, such as Catullus ("Lesbian sparrow") and Ovid ("parrot"). In conclusion, Martial chooses to demystify the epic models of longevity by paradoxizing people's confidence in situations that go beyond the laws of nature and to ridicule death.
In the fifth chapter, Martial moves on to the field of aetiological poetry and highlights the cultural "identity" of various cities of the empire associated with well-known mythological circles (Argonautic, Theban and Trojan). Martial features Rome's dominant position in its globalized world, and then proceeds to highlight the divine origin of its people and the feasts of Saturnalia, which offer him the opportunity to use "spicy" humor, bringing causal myths to the fore. The cheerful atmosphere that prevailed in those days allowed the poet to speak openly about love, as he describes gifts that are exchanged between the guests, as well as various sensuous spectacles. The offering of gifts as well as the display of food during the festive events (purple robe from Tyre, wild boar, swallows, pheasant) further fuels the imagination of the poet, who recalls humorοusly famous mythological examples, (Prometheus, Caledonian boar, Tireas and Procne, Argonautic campaign). The poet presents the "exotic" dishes not only as simple delicacies, but also as samples of unknown cultures, parodying well-known mythological examples, such as the love affairs of Zeus with various mortal women (Io, Danae, and Leda).
The sixth chapter highlights Martial’s artistic perception, openly expressing his opposition to the standards of epic tradition and advocating austerity to the expression and the size of the works. This artistic model also includes a different moral evaluation of the heroes, who do not seem as impressive as before, showcased by a more realistic approach of Hercules’ personality in the Apophoreta. In addition, Martial’s critique focuses on epic motifs, such as the duel between two heroes, as he recalls at the same time the brave Hector and the infant Astyanax.
Martial in some cases refers to certain mythological examples in order to denote the contrast between youth and old age (Astyanax - Priam, Hecuba - Andromache), love rivals (Briseis - Patroklos) and marital fidelity and adultery (Penelope, Andromache - Helen) presenting a more realistic side of the epic heroes. He also borrows motifs from Odyssey in order to refer humorously to subjects such as poor quality art (Sirens), physical deformity (Cyclops), the contrast between poverty and wealth (Mount Croesus) and the wedding proposal (Faiakes-Nausicaa). As one can observe, Martial generally uses relevant mythological examples in order to emphasize jestingly that moral values have completely disappeared in his contemporary society while materialism, immorality and indifference to fellow human beings prevail.
In other cases, Martial refers to an example of the epic tradition in order to express his artistic ideals and his intention to compose short poems, moving away from the Homeric models. Of course, the parody of the heroes and their values could be considered more as a literary game and not as a rejection of the epic tradition as a whole, as it can be derived through the poet's relevant references to the importance and timelessness of the epic poems. In any case, however, Martial distinguishes himself clearly from the creators of big poems, considering that they imitate indiscriminately the unsurpassed Homeric models and thus waste in vain like Sisyphus and Tantalus, who were condemned by the gods in eternal torment.
In conclusion, Martial combines the realistic interpretation of the world that is set in the context of Alexandrian-elegiac poetry with harmony, but also with a didactic mood in the context of the epigram that required clarity and brevity in expression, thus creating something innovative and pioneering. The poet consciously chose to deviate from the standards of the epic tradition by interpreting the relevant mythological specimens with rational criteria, following the tendency that had begun from the period of the late res publica and the early Principatus (poetae novi, elegiac poets) and the influence of Hellenistic poetry (Callimachus, Philitas, Parthenius). However, the elements that differentiated Martial from his colleagues were the systematic use and application of well-known mythological examples in a wide range of situations, their harmonious adaptation in each case (ad hoc), the immediacy of his style to the reading public, his ability to achieve the connection of the mythological past with the present, as well as the featuring of their "alternative" aspects, through which he expresses his critique of the morals of his time as well as his poetic persona.
