Dissertation committee:
Σοφία Καλοπίση-Βέρτη (επιβλέπουσα), Ομότιμη καθηγήτρια Βυζαντινής Αρχαιολογίας, ΕΚΠΑ
Μαρία Παναγιωτίδη, Ομότιμη καθηγήτρια Βυζαντινής Αρχαιολογίας, ΕΚΠΑ
Βικτωρία Κέπετζη, τ. Επίκουρη καθηγήτρια Βυζαντινής Αρχαιολογίας, ΕΚΠΑ
Αναστασία Δρανδάκη, επίκουρη καθηγήτρια Βυζαντινής Αρχαιολογίας, ΕΚΠΑ
Αντωνία Κιουσοπούλου, καθηγήτρια Βυζαντινής Ιστορίας, ΕΚΠΑ
Βασιλική Φωσκόλου, επίκουρη καθηγήτρια Βυζαντινής Αρχαιολογίας, Πανεπιστήμιο Κρήτης
Νικόλαος Ξιώνης, αναπληρωτής καθηγητής Δογματικής, Θεολογική Σχολή, ΕΚΠΑ
Summary:
The Peloponnese was characterized by the coexistence of the Franks and Byzantines after the Latin conquest of 1204, constitutes an exceptional field for research on issues of identity and self-consciousness, of cultural exchange or rivalry. The present thesis focuses on the history and the monumental painting of the churches of the southeastern part of Peloponnese, which is situated approximately in the boundaries of the modern-day prefecture of Laconia and recommends one of the most interesting case studies for two main reasons. At first, from a historical point of view, the inhabitants of the area experienced both the Frankish conquest in a short period of time (after 1204) and the return to the Byzantine control in 1262, which was essentially ratified with the surrender of the four castles – Monemvasia, Mystras, Geraki and Maïna-, being certainly the southwestern border of the Byzantine Empire, next to the Principality of Achaia. Secondly, in terms of art, a number of churches with mural paintings are preserved, covering in chronological order almost every phase of the local history and, consequently, allowing conclusions to be drawn on multiple levels. Most of these monuments have been recorded, dated and studied, whereas others remain unpublished. However, it has not been presented until today a composed and critical study of the monumental painting of the Laconian monuments, which highlights the religious, social, political and ideological context in which they were created.
The present thesis examines for the first time the frescoes of the churches of Laconia in combination with the inscriptions, the donors’ portraits and the written sources, including historiographical, ecclesiastical, theological, rhetorical and other texts, in order to highlight the reception and the way of reflection of the contemporary historical conditions on the mural paintings of the Laconian churches, as experienced by the local community. First of all, in this perspective an in-depth study is carried out concerning the main theological issues that differentiate the Latin Christian dogma from the Orthodox one, as they re-introduced in the 13th-century discussions for the ecclesiastical union, including the papal primacy, the use of leavened (enzyme) and unleavened (azyme) bread, and filioque. Matters related to the western painting in the Principality of Achaia are also examined briefly based on the few fragments of frescoes that have been preserved in the church of St Francis in Glarentza, but mainly the Byzantine frescoes of the Laconian monuments. Particularly, the present thesis deals with the evolution of the monumental painting and tradition- iconographically and stylistically- in relation with the great artistic centers of the era, the role of Monemvasia and Mystras as castles-centers of authority and control in the wide area, and the issue of assimilation or not of western cultural elements. In the development of the specific standpoint that connects significant issues of political ideology, theological thought and ecclesiastical tradition with the ways of the reflection of these factors in the art, the present thesis sheds light on the catalytic role of the Empire of Nicaea as well as of Constantinople under the particular historical circumstances. On the other hand, the importance of the castles in Monemvasia and in Mystras was emerged as centers of the Byzantine authority in the area as well as the channels of communication between the local communities and the policy of the Byzantine emperors. As a result, the combined research approaching frescoes, written sources and archaeological sites constitute a valuable witness of thought and action of the local community.
The main body of the PhD thesis focuses on eleven selected monuments of Laconia, the frescoes of which reflect more clearly and intensively the current historical events. On their iconographic programs are detected the political and ecclesiastical constitution of the region based on the principles of the central administration, the promotion of the Orthodox dogma and faith, the connection with the great artistic centers, the level of assimilation within the new artistic tendencies, as well as the dynamic role of the local tradition. The frescoes of the following three monuments are dated back to the first decades of the 13th century: of Panagia Odigitria [Agia Sofia] in the Ano Poli (Upper Town) of Monemvasia, of Evangelistria in the settlement of Geraki and of Saint George [Episkopi] in Mesa (Inner) Mani. Based on specific iconographic elements and stylistic observations, the connection of the region of Laconia with the environment of the Empire of Nicaea is pointed out. The iconographic program of these three churches seems to highlight mostly the situation of «captivity», experienced by the Byzantines after the Frankish occupation of the Peloponnese, and the strong expectation of their return in their own new Jerusalem, that is Constantinople, the center of the Byzantine Empire.
The frescoes of eight churches are dated back after the recapture of the region by the Byzantines until the establishment of Despotate of Mystras (1349): Saint Panteleimon in Velanidia (around 1282) located in the peninsula of Maleas (Epidaurus Limira), Saint Demetrios (Metropolis) and Panagia Odigitria in the newly constituted Mystras, Panagia Chrysaphitissa in Chrysapha (1289/90), in the close proximity to and direct dependence on Mystras, Saint Nikolas in the settlement of Geraki (around 1322), the cave church of Palaiomonastery (Old Monastery) in Vrontamas (frescoes of second half 13th c.) near Geraki, Saints Theodore at Kaphiona (1263/4-1271) and Saint George at Karynia (1281) in Mesa Mani. The study of their monumental painting proved to be particularly revealing for the Byzantines’ attitude and integrity against the significant facts and fluctuations, which they experienced. These monuments are examined on the basis of their connection with the castles as centers of control and means of supervision over the surrounding areas in the frame of the local reestablished administrative and ecclesiastical organization. Moreover, the wall paintings of the churches in the castle-towns and of those close to the castles express the bidirectional relationship between Constantinople and periphery, which reveals the intention of the central authority a) to establish the political power in the newly recaptured area of Laconia, being certainly the southwestern border of the Byzantine empire, next to the Principality of Achaia, b) to strengthen the bonds with the local population, c) to reinforce the orthodox dogma towards the Latins as well as Byzantines who accept Latin faith and beliefs, d) and, of course, to cultivate the hope for the recapture of all the areas throughout the Peloponnese. On the part of the local community, Byzantines deal with the current crucial political and theological matters, as well as they accept and highlight, to some extent, the strong connection with the central government of the Palaiologan emperors as the indisputable legitimate authority. In addition, groups of painters (workshops?) were identified, who processed creatively up to a level the new current iconographic and stylistic trends in combination with the local tradition. The key role in the choice of the iconographic program seems to be played by the patrons, whose names are referred in some cases on the churches’ inscriptions.
Then, a total assessment of the frescoes of 123 monuments dated back to the examined period (1204-1349), as well as observations on issues related with the western influences on Byzantine monumental painting, as well as the criteria for choosing the location of the churches. In particular, there are identified and interpreted current innovations and elements of local tradition on the representations of the eponymous saint, of the frontal bishops and of Melismos on the apse of the Sanctuary, on the pictorial cycles of Christ and the Virgin Theotokos, as well as the framework of attributing particular veneration to certain saints depending on the geographical and cultural physiognomy of the three sub-regions of Laconia (Maleas peninsula, valley of Eurotas including the castles of Mystras and Geraki, Mani peninsula). On the matter of western influences on the monumental painting of Laconia’s churches, with the exemption of few individual decorative elements, no osmosis between the Byzantine and western art was observed. Therefore, there is no creation of a common artistic language, something that had already happened in other areas of the Mediterranean basin. In other words, it seems that the local population was extremely focused on the Byzantine tradition, which was embraced as an element of their identity and was constantly fed back by the two major administrative centers of Monemvasia and Mystras, the Byzantine pillars of culture and tradition of the Peloponnese against the Principality of Achaia.
The on-site research, the archaeological documentation and the study of the monumental painting reveled one more aspect of the medieval Laconian society and art. The monuments of high-quality frescoes, which are associated with members of the local political and ecclesiastical rule as evidenced by the inscriptions and the donors’ portraits, are lied on key positions in relation with the castles-centers of authority and neighboring settlements. Built at key points of strategic importance, they seem to formulate a network connection and control of the hinterland, road and sea lanes.
Keywords:
Peloponnese, Laconia, Principality of Achaia, Constantinople, Monemvasia, Mystras, Geraki, Mani, Late Byzantine Period, Monumental Painting, Inscriptions, Donors' Portraits, Iconography, Style, Topography and Function of Churches, Byzantine Political Ideology, Empire of Nicaea, Asia Minor, Byzantine Identity and Tradition, theological controversies between Byzantines and Latins, Council of Lyon (1274), Apostles, Warrior saints, most venerated Saints
