Summary:
The doctoral thesis investigated the issue of utilizing clergy and monks as mediators to and from the emperor for matters of religious policy during the 4th century. The mediation between the ecclesiastical and imperial institutions, especially through members belonging to the religious sphere, constitutes evidence of the gradual official institutionalization of local Churches, which were henceforth organized into a unified ecclesiastical establishment protected by the emperor and accountable to him. Given the biased, sometimes vague, contradictory, or very limited evidence from primary sources, historical research in progress was chosen, away from the enclosures of the identities of “orthodoxy” and “heresy”, especially since for the most part of the 4th century, the prevailing orthodoxy varied and was not always the actual criterion of distinction. Key questions during the research included the investigation of the sender, the recipient, the members of the embassy, and the content of the request. In this context, other historical manifestations of the events were examined, indicative of the surrounding spiritual, political, and social climate of the 4th century.
The first chapter delves into missions that emerged amidst the Donatist schism in North Africa following Constantine's dominance in the West in 313. It highlights the surprising support from the Carthaginian Church faction recognizing Caecilianus as bishop, through property endowments and tax exemptions, which astonished other North African bishops who viewed him as a betrayer of faith. These bishops appealed to Constantine five times between 313 and 321 for a reassessment of the initial decisions favoring Caecilianus. The appeals included direct meetings with the emperor and written petitions, culminating in the legal reinstatement of the Donatists to their churches by request to Julian, followed by their expulsion under Valentinian. The persistence and disruptive presence of the Donatists prompted Catholic bishops to convene councils in Carthage and appeal to Honorius five times to ensure order, reflecting a significant increase in such missions after the Catholic Church's exclusive recognition by Theodosius and the criminalization of heresies.
The second chapter returns to Constantine in 324, focusing on his interactions with disputes primarily stemming from Egypt. The mission of Hossius of Cordova to Alexandria aimed at pacifying tensions within the largest bishopric of the Eastern Mediterranean. Despite limited success, Hossius orchestrated a strong clerical network supportive of Alexander of Alexandria, which played a pivotal role in shaping the Nicene Creed. The inclusion of the Melitians into the Catholic Church of Alexandria under certain conditions and the subsequent refusal of their incorporation by Alexander after a condition was violated are also discussed. The chapter examines the permeability characterizing the Egyptian desert's heterotopia.
The third chapter investigates the period from Constantine's death to that of Constantius, examining clerical missions aimed at resolving disputes among Eastern bishops exiled to the West, including Paul of Constantinople and Athanasius of Alexandria. Despite the failure to convene an ecumenical council at Sardica in 343 and subsequent diplomatic efforts, the chapter outlines the intricate dynamics of ecclesiastical politics, including the role of military officials in ecclesiastical missions, the assassination of Constans by Magnentius, and the latter's unsuccessful attempts at reconciliation with Constantius. It further discusses the council at Arles, which condemned Athanasius under the influence of Constantius, and the significant conceptual elevation of ecclesiastical authority by the term “legati”. The chapter concludes with the synods convened by Constantius in the West (Ariminium) and the East (initially Nicomedia, then Seleucia), illustrating the schism between supporters of the Nicene spirit (homoousians and homoiousians) and the homoians, and the subsequent dual embassies sent to the emperor, underscoring the complex interplay of religious doctrine and imperial politics in the 4th century.
In the fourth chapter, the focus shifts to missions directed towards Jovian. Julian had entertained requests from marginalized Churches, responding positively through written submissions, the bearers of which remain unidentified. Upon Julian's death announcement in 363, Athanasius clandestinely sought Jovian to lift his exile. Two clerics, representing the Alexandrian Church at the Antioch palace, unsuccessfully implored the emperor to cancel Athanasius's return. This period witnessed a unique but distorted record (Petitiones Arianorum), possibly documenting discussions between accusing clerical envoys and the emperor. Jovian received two re-quests; however, the limited role of clerical bearers in one, from the homoiousians, and the confused attribution of the other, from the "anomoeans," limits their study contribution.
The final chapter highlights the Eastern homoiousians' efforts to persuade Valentinian and Valens to reconsider the doctrine of similarity. In 364, represented by Hypatianos of Heraclea, they sought permission from the brothers —primarily from Valentinian— for a council convening to this end, receiving a positive yet indifferent response. After unilaterally conducting the synod, they petitioned Valens, now the Eastern emperor, for ratification. He deemed the decisions irregular due to the exclusion of Eudoxius of Constantinople and the risk of widespread unrest. Subsequently, fearing exile, homoiousian representatives from Asia Minor sent a three-member embassy to Italy, aiming to gain Liberius's favor and solicit Valentinian's intervention. Since Valentinian had left Milan, they settled for Liberius, who coerced them into accepting homoousianism, a decision not universally accepted by their Asian constituents, merely heightening the Roman bishop's involvement in Eastern affairs. Lastly, the rumored orchestration by Valens in 370, while in Nicomedia, of a ship's arson carrying eighty presbyters from Constantinople seeking protection against the homoian encroachments, is examined.
The post-factum adds a discussion on the execution of Priscillian of Avila in 385, sanctioned by Magnus Maximus. Priscillian's case is notable not for its alignment with clerical missions or mediation but as the first legal execution of a bishop for matters of faith, accused of engaging in “Gnostic” rituals. This incident under-scores the novelty of a cleric facing execution not for the emperor or local officials' opposition to his faith, as contemporary sources might imaginatively recount, but for his doctrinal stance. It also serves as a poignant reminder to readers about “Gnosticism”. Though seldom directly addressed since it often falls outside the primary focus of inquiry, Gnosticism pervades the 4th-century Christian landscape, initially through open-air preaching and eventually behind closed doors. Even as “Gnostics” adopted an institutional, hierarchical organization, they maintained that individual, not institutional, salvation through mystical union with the divine, threatened the established episcopal authority, a facet this research seeks to explore. This examination sheds light on the tension between personal salvation and institutional authority, highlighting the complex religious dynamics of the 4th century.
In light of the evidence presented, throughout the 4th century, the Christian Church underwent significant transformations, evolving from a marginalized faith into an integral component of the Roman state. This period, marked by the ascension of Constantine catalyzed the Church's establishment, granting it a canonical scripture, legal dogma, and a vast hierarchical structure. The crux of these developments lay in the strategic engagement of higher clergy as emissaries between the Church and the emperor, a notable deviation from the secular origins typically associated with imperial envoys. This practice underscored a dynamic interaction essential for the ecclesiastical hierarchy's recognition and institutionalization within the Church. Bishops, having direct access to the emperor, gained influence, enabling them to affect imperial policy significantly. The transformation from sporadic 4th-century contacts to a more structured interaction in the 5th century, following the exclusive legalization of Nicaean Christianity, illustrates the evolving relationship between the Church and state. This evolution culminated in the establishment of a novel method of interaction, where significant ecclesiastical figures traveled to the emperor with legal and even social-family life requests, such as divorce issues, solidifying a groundbreaking approach to Church - state dialogue. The phenomenon of “sacred journeys” became so prevalent that it stirred concerns within the Church itself, leading to regulations aimed at controlling these movements. By the 5th century, the Church had established a formalized protocol for ecclesiastical representatives' audience with the emperor, further institutionalizing the Church's role within the imperial framework and highlighting the clergy's pivotal role in mediating between the spiritual and temporal realms.
